Paper 44

Grand Duke Nicholas at Brighton Pavilion, 1817

Contributed by Paul Cooper, Research Editor

Figure 1. Grand Duke Nicholas depicted during his visit to Britain in 1817. Image courtesy of the British Museum.

Late 1816 saw a visit to Britain of Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia (1796-1855, see Figure 1), the second in line to the Russian throne. Nicholas would, later in life, go on to become Tsar Nicholas I, his visit to Britain was an opportunity to learn of another European super-power from personal experience. Britain was the home of the Industrial Revolution, steam power fuelled mechanical processes that led to cheaper goods of a higher quality. Mechanisation affected trade on a global scale and it fuelled an Empire; Britain was proverbially the Nation of Shopkeepers (a phrase attributed, probably incorrectly, to Napoleon), the new peace in Europe brought with it new opportunities. The Prince Regent hosted a ball in the Grand Duke's honour at his pleasure-palace Pavilion in Brighton in early 1817; in this paper we'll consider the dancing at that ball.

It's easy, with the disadvantages of hindsight, to miss just how dramatic the societal changes had been in Britain; the Russian state was sensible to take notice. One satirist, commenting on the pace of change, joked (Cumberland Pacquet, 2nd June 1823): England is an improving nation. Who, twenty years ago, would have supposed that in the year 1823, ladies and gentlemen would be forced from London Bridge to Calais in twelve hours, by a kettle of boiling water, or that while we were stirring our drawing room fire, we should be feeding the lamps at our hall door? Every thing has improved - so much is public taste refined! Instead of barrel organs, grinding English ballads through the streets, we have Savoyards, gaily dressed, playing foreign airs. Instead of two long parallel rows of people jumping awkwardly about a room, by way of dancing, we have now the attitudinizing quadrille, and the twinning waltz; our shops are saloons, our warehouses emporiums; ... Instead of common place exhibitions such as we had of old, we have fourteen coloured prints stuck on a wall, and called a cosmorama; we have a peristrephic panorama of the coronation; we have equestrian exercise instead of horsemanship, and gymnasia instead of tumbling; even Punch himself has grown genteel. This self-deprecating review makes a deceptively important point - the changes in the dancing in the nation's ballrooms mirrored the broader societal changes in the nation itself; Britons were thinking about themselves in a different way. The rise of the Quadrille and Waltz throughout the second half of the 1810s was incomplete at our date of early 1817, but the change was palpable, just one more example of Britain casting off the old and embracing the new.

The tunes and dances that were reported to have been danced at the ball are:

• The Prince Regent
• Polonaise & Waltz
• Cotillions & Quadrilles
• I'll Gang Nae Mair to Yon Town
• The Fairy Dance
• Waterloo
• The Tank
• The White Cockade
• Mony Musk
• Sir Roger de Coverley
• La Boulanger

The Visit of Grand Duke Nicholas

Nicholas was the third of the four sons of Tsar Paul I (1754-1801), Paul in turn was the son of Catherine the Great (1729-1796). Nicholas' older brother Alexander (1777-1825) became Emperor of Russia in 1801 after their father's assassination; it was Alexander who was in power during Napoleon's aborted invasion of Russia in 1812 in which Moscow burnt and Napoleon's Grande Armée was all but destroyed by the cruel Russian winter. Alexander led the counter invasion of France in 1813 and 1814, he personally oversaw victory at the 1814 Battle of Paris. Peace was declared in 1814 and the Congress of Vienna was instigated in an attempt to negotiate a lasting settlement. Tsar Alexander I visited London in person in June 1814, he was greeted by cheering crowds but could only stay for a couple of weeks, he may however have been impressed with what he saw. Some months later Napoleon returned from exile for his Hundred Days of restoration, this triggered an abrupt end to the Congress and led to the 1815 Battle of Waterloo. After that things would be different; Europe had suffered enough of warfare, it was time to rebuild.

Nicholas, as the third of the four brothers, was not expected to rule Russia. Alexander's daughters had died when young so it was the second of the four brothers, Grand Duke Konstantin (1779-1831), who was expected to succeed Alexander; Konstantin surprised everyone by renouncing his claim to the throne in 1823 making Nicholas the immediate heir. That was yet to happen in 1817 of course. Nicholas was nonetheless of political significance, he was betrothed to the 15 year old Princess Charlotte of Prussia (1798-1860) in 1814, a marriage that would strengthen the alliance between Russia and Prussia; the wedding would take place in July 1817, Nicholas would first be sent on educational tours of both Russia (May to September 1816) and Britain (November 1816 to March 1817) in preparation.

Figure 2. Silk Mills at Derby, 1809. Image courtesy of the British Museum.

The Courier newspaper for the 21st November 1816 reported: The arrival in London of the Grand Duke Nicholas, brother to the Emperor of Russia, has been expected for several days past. St Alban's house, in Stratford-place, has been in a state of readiness for the reception of his Imperial Highness since last Friday. ... The Russian Ambassador arrived in London yesterday about half-past one o'clock, in one of the Regent's carriages, and in a short time after waited upon the Prince Regent in a private manner, to announce the Grand Duke's arrival. At five o'clock his Imperial Highness and suite arrived at St Alban's House in eight carriages ... In a short time after their arrival, Sir Benjamin Bloomfield waited upon the Grand Duke with the Prince Regent's congratulatory compliments upon his arrival in England. Count Lieven, the Russian Ambassador, also attended his Imperial Highness, and dined with him. Sentinels are stationed at the door, and every attention is to be paid to the Grand Duke during his stay in England, by command of the Prince Regent. The Public Ledger for the 23rd of November 1816 reported that Nicholas had held a Levee at St. Albans-house on the 22nd in order to meet the numerous dignitaries and ambassadors who awaited him, he then travelled to Carlton House to be presented to the Prince Regent; Nicholas hosted the Duke of York that same evening. Nicholas evidently spent several days enjoying London, the Morning Post for the 25th November reported that he enjoys the pleasure of promenading the streets, and visiting shops, which the Emperor his brother, from the eager curiosity of the populace, was debarred from. The superior appearance of English shops to all foreigners, is a striking feature of London. Further significant visits from various dignitaries would occur over the following days. Sir William Congreve (inventor of the Congreve Rocket, national inspector of gasworks and the holder of numerous industrial patents) was appointed to attend the Grand Duke Nicholas, for the purpose of showing and explaining to that illustrious person all the objects of curiosity and science in this country (Evening Mail, 25th November 1816); Congreve would remain the official tour guide for the remainder of the visit. The following days saw trips to Covent Garden Theatre, the Arsenal at Woolwich, military reviews, and a visit to meet Princess Charlotte (of Wales, the second in line to the British throne) and her husband Prince Leopold at Claremont House.

He would then undertake a rapid tour of England and Scotland, the Morning Chronicle wrote that he is to go to Warwick Castle, Birmingham, to visit the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth, Derbyshire. His Imperial Highness is expected to be absent from London upwards of a month (Morning Chronicle, 2nd December 1816). After visiting Birmingham he enjoyed a tour of Lichfield and Derby (Morning Post, 9th December 1816); he spent several days with the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth, viewing amongst other delights the Lead and Shot Manufactory and the cotton manufactory and undertaking a trip to Castleton before continuing to Sheffield and Leeds (Morning Post, 12th December 1816). The inspection of Leeds included the cloth halls and extensive woollen manufactories, the flax spinning-mills and the great iron-works followed by a trip to Harewood House, then to York (Morning Post, 16th December 1816). The tour then went further north to Newcastle, then to Edinburgh and Glasgow. He was especially keen to visit the Cannon Foundary at Carron that had previously supplied technology to the Russian Empire; the quality of their munitions had been highly praised by Wellington. The return trip south was to include Carlisle and the Lakes, and on his way will visit Manchester and Liverpool. He also intends to honour the University of Oxford with a visit previous to his return. (Morning Post, 30th December 1816). Meanwhile, the Prince Regent was preparing a Grand Ball at Brighton for the 16th January; Nicholas was back in London by the 14th January (Morning Post, 15th January 1817) and in Brighton on the 15th (Morning Post, 17th January 1817) having survived a rapid tour of the nation's industrial heartlands... if nothing else, he'd retain a clear memory of the state of the nation's roads!

The remainder of the Grand Duke's stay involved yet more travelling and numerous splendid entertainments in London; he left Britain in early March 1817, he was to return to Russia and his own Royal Wedding.

Figure 3. Design for the West Front of the Pavilion from Repton's Red Book, originally 1808.

The Royal Pavilion at Brighton

George, Prince of Wales (1762-1830) (later King George IV), first visited the seaside town of Brighton in 1783; it was reported of the 21 year old heir to the throne that The presence of the Prince of Wales at Brighton, diffused a spirit of cheerfulness over every face, but more particularly enlivened the fair sex, whose appearance at the assembly was more brilliant and enchanting than usual (Newcastle Weekly Courant, 20th September 1783). He evidently liked the place. By 1785 it was reported that The Prince has inspired the utmost festivity at Brighton. His Highness will continue his visits to that spot at intervals during the summer (The Times, 27th June 1785). A little later it was reported that A plan is on foot to erect a new Theatre at Brighton. The Prince means to patronize the undertaking, and a phalanx of the Noblesse have promised their support (The Times, 24th September 1785).

The Prince would secretly and illegally marry Mrs Fitzherbert (1756-1837) in late 1785, Brighton had been and remained a suitable place for the couple to spend time together. Rumours of a more substantial building project circulated in 1787; the Caledonian Mercury for the 5th April 1787 dismissed the reports: The Prince of Wales is not building, as has been repeatedly asserted at Brighton; whereas The Times for the 9th July 1787 reported Various are the reports at Brighton, relative to the arrival of the Prince; he was expected to take possession of his Marine Pavilion, in person, this day. A fortune had already been spent from the public purse on the Prince's official palace at Carlton House, additional spending would be controversial but inevitable. As a regular visitor the Prince desired a more suitable home, thus began the first stage of the development that would eventually convert his Marine Pavilion into the Royal Pavilion.

The Pavilion remained a favourite destination throughout the Prince's life; it was repeatedly enlarged and redeveloped over many years, most famously by the architect John Nash from 1815 onwards; at the date of our 1817 ball it was in a transitional state and was still being developed, it would nonetheless have looked much as it does today - an imperial palace in an Indian style on the south coast of England. The pavilion at Brighton was a favoured place for the Prince Regent to get away from the official obligations and responsibilities of court and family; he could do as he pleased at Brighton.

Princess Charlotte's Birthday Ball, Jan 8th 1817

The Prince hosted numerous parties at Brighton, including a ball at the Pavilion on the 8th January 1817; this event was in celebration of his daughter Princess Charlotte's 21st Birthday and would act as preparation for the Grand Duke's visit the following week. The Oxford Herald (11th January 1817) reported that The new room in the north site of the Palace, formerly distinguished as Grove House, eighty feet in length, was used for dancing. Towards ten o'clock the Ball was opened by the Duke of Clarence and Lady Charlotte Cholmondeley, who led off to the inspiring air called The Prince Regent, and about 35 couple followed. The second dance was called by the Royal Duke I'll gang nae mair to yon town who led off with the same accomplished partner. At the conclusion of a third dance, the diversion was continued in French quadrilles and waltzes.. The ballroom for the night was reported to have occupied the site of the recently demolished Grove House, a location that would subsequently become the Pavilion's Music Room (see Figure 5); the site of the dancing isn't entirely certain however, The Courier newspaper for the 9th January 1817 referred to the ballroom as being the nearby spacious dining-room in Marlborough-house. The precise location of the dancing may be subject to controversy but the same room would probably have been used a week later for the Grand Duke's visit. The dances for the birthday ball were led off by Prince William, Duke of Clarence (1765-1837) (later King William IV) and Lady Charlotte Cholmondeley (d.1828).

Figure 4. The West or Garden Front of The Pavilion at Brighton, 1824.

The 1818 Memoirs of Her Late Royal Highness Charlotte Augusta, Princess of Wales, &c. recorded the following of the birthday ball at Brighton:

The invitation tickets expressed Out of Mourning; the Court sables, consequently, were laid aside. The dresses of the Ladies were peculiarly elegant, many of them splendid; diamonds, rubies, and pearls, being in sparkling profusion.

The Prince Regent had issued a command, that such articles only as were the immediate manufacture of this country should be worn on the occasion; and this beneficent command appeared to be most scrupulously attended to, for neither foreign silks, nor even foreign lace, nor foreign materials of any sort, were to be perceived; the Ladies were British from top to toe, and true British hearts seemed to animate all present, and give lustre to every eye. Without the aid of foreign frippery, the British fair never appeared more fascinating.

The Ball commenced about ten o'clock, in the magnificent new Ball Room, eighty feet long, on the north side of the Palace, which was splendidly illuminated with cut-glass lustres and globe lamps. His Royal Highness the Duke of Clarence led off with the graceful Lady Charlotte Cholmondeley, followed by [around 28 couples] The Royal Duke danced, in the course of the evening, two other country dances with the accomplished Miss Seymour. In the evening, between these national dances, several quadrilles were performed by the beautiful Mrs Patterson, (late Madame Jerome Bonaparte,) two Misses Caton, and Miss Floyd, who danced in a manner to rivet the attention of His Royal Highness the Prince Regent and his illustrious visitors.

Supper was served at two o'clock. Such eagerness was shewn to resume the mazy round, that few sat down to partake of it.

Among the waltzers, were particularly observed - Mr Lloyd and the Hon Miss Lake; Prince Esterhazy and Lady M Meade; Sir Edmund Neagle and Mrs White; Sir Godfrey Webster and Miss H Shiffner; Lord Castlereagh and Lady C Cholmondeley, &c.

Dancing was kept up with great spirit till five o'clock, when the Ball terminated in the true old English style, with the deservedly popular dance of Sir Roger de Coverley, led off by the Duke of Clarence and Miss L Caton.

The Court was officially mourning the death of Frederick I, King of Württemberg (1754-1816) at the start of 1817, he was the Prince Regent's Brother-in-law and was husband to yet another Princess Charlotte (1766-1828), the mourning would continue until the following day, the 9th of January (The Courier, 12th November 1816). The courtiers should have been wearing their mourning sables but the Prince ordered that the guests at the birthday ball should not do so; we've written about dancing during court mourning before, you might like to follow the link to read more. This dispensation would not be required the following week for the Grand Duke's Ball, the period of mourning had ended by then.

We're informed that the quadrilles at the birthday ball were led by Mrs Elizabeth Patterson Bonaparte (1785-1879), she was an American socialite who had married Napoleon's brother Jerome (1784-1860) back in 1803. Their marriage was not a diplomatic success and the couple were divorced under American law in 1815, it had previously been annulled under French law some years earlier; this had resulted in an unfortunate situation in which Jerome had remarried under French law in 1807 and yet Elizabeth remained married to a bigamist under American law until 1815. Elizabeth's replacement (Jerome's new wife) was a daughter of the same Frederick I of Württemberg for whom the court were supposed to be in mourning! Elizabeth's situation had been complicated and perhaps not entirely dissimilar to that of Mrs Fitzherbert, it's possible that the Regent felt compassion for her situation. It hardly seems credible that official mourning was not only suppressed for the ball, but that the diplomatically embarrassing ex-wife of the deceased's son-in-law was also given a position of honour at the event! Other dancers that evening included the Austrian ambassador Prince Esterhazy (1786-1866) and the serving Foreign Secretary Lord Castlereagh (1769-1822).

The preparations were complete, all was ready for the arrival of the Grand Duke and his entourage the following week.

The Grand Duke's Arrival at Brighton, Jan 15th 1817

Grand Duke Nicholas arrived in Brighton on Wednesday the 15th January 1817, together with a large group of other dignitaries. The Morning Post for the 17th January 1817 reported (in a column with the title Brighton, Jan 16):

Figure 5. Party in the Pavilion's Music Room, from The Royal Pavilion at Brighton by John Nash, 1826. This room was yet to be constructed in 1817.

The Grand Duke Nicholas, and other illustrious personages being expected at the Pavilion yesterday, the 10th Royal Hussars and the 51st Infantry, all Waterloo heroes, were drawn up, forming an avenue between them for carriages to pass, extending from the North gate of the Pavilion, with the colours, bands, drums, trumpets, and fifes of the regiments. The weather was damp, but the concourse of spectators was very great. A few minutes before five o'clock his Imperial Highness and suite passed through the military avenue, the colours waving, and the bands playing God save the King, while the acclamations of the populace gave additional interest to the scene.

About an hour after the arrival of the Grand Duke the Duke of York came in about an hour later than he had intended, in consequence of the breaking down of his carriage near Crawley. His Royal Highness, however, suffered no other inconvenience by the accident than that of being delayed on the road.

The Palace arrivals yesterday also included:- The Austrian, French, Spanish and Dutch Ambassadors; the immediate suite of the Grand Duke, Baron Nicolaz, M de Savoroff, M de Glinka, and General Kutusoff; the Countess of Lieven, Madame Osmond, Lord Clive, the Earl of Abergavenny, Lord James and Lady E Murray, and Sir Wm Congreve. The Hanoverian Ambassador, Count Munster, arrived on Tuesday.

The Royal dinner party yesterday was numerous. Covers were laid for forty-two. In the evening, the company received but a slight increase. A concert followed. Splendid preparations are made for an entertainment, consisting of a ball, &c. at the Palace, this evening. The whole circle of nobility in this part have tickets of invitation.

A report in the Public Ledger for 17th January 1817 added in reference to the 15th: At nine o'clock, the royal and noble guests were joined by a numerous assemblage of the Nobility at the concert, cord, and conversation parties. The Prince Regent most cordially welcomed the Grand Duke Nicholas, after his rapid tour through England and Scotland. To-morrow night, the ball at the Pavilion will be one of the most distinguished for rank and fashion ever given at the provincial residence of Royalty.

The Grand Ball at Brighton, Jan 16th 1817

The Prince hosted his dinner and ball in the Grand Duke's honour on Thursday the 16th January 1817. Forty five guests were invited to the meal, they included the Royal Dukes, the Grand Duke and his entourage, and the major foreign ambassadors. The Prince had previously hired a celebrated French chef to his personal staff, Marie-Antoine Carême (1784-1833), it was Carême who was tasked with preparing the 100+ delicacies that would be served at the banquet. The menu for the event survives within Carême's 1842 Le Maître d'hôtel français (see Figure 6) - it's a wonder that any of the guests were able to dance after such a meal!

The grand ball was held that same evening, the 45 guests from the meal were joined by a large selection of dignitaries and socialites, some were locals but many had travelled for the event. The reports of the ball in the press varied in their detail; for example, The Times newspaper for the 20th January 1817 summarised the proceedings as follows: The Prince Regent's dinner party on the 16th included the Duke of York and Clarence, the Grand Duke Nicholas and suite, the Foreign Ambassadors, State Officers, &c. to the number of 45. There was a grand ball in the evening, when the Grand Duke danced with Lady Cholmondeley, and waltzed with the Countess of Lieven. After supper the ball recommenced. Next morning the Grand Duke, in a Russian uniform, accompanied by the Duke of York, rode through the town, and reviewed the 10th hussars. The Grand Duke afterwards walked on the Steine.

Figure 6. Carême's menu for the banquet from his 1842 Le Maître d'hôtel français

The Morning Chronicle for the 20th January 1817 offered a more interesting account of the ball including details of the dancing (which have been emphasised):

In compliment to his Imperial Highness, Duke Nicholas, the Prince Regent gave a splendid entertainment at the Pavilion, of a dinner and ball.

The ball was opened before eleven o'clock by the Duke of Clarence and Lady Charlotte Cholmondeley. About thirty couple, with suitable vivacity, followed. Tune, The Prince Regent.

The next was a waltz; the third, a cotillion; and the fourth a country dance, called Waterloo, which was led off by the Grand Duke and Lady Charlotte Cholmondeley, followed by the Duke of Clarence and the elegant Mrs Wigram.

The fifth was a waltz, called and commenced by the Grand Duke. His Imperial Highness, as adopted in Russia, preceded the waltz by a Polonaise march and step, in which the dancers move round the space alloted for the exercise in graceful motion, ere the more intricate varieties of the waltz are pursued.

It was near two o'clock before the company retired for refreshments, which were served up in the adjoining rooms, and consisted of a cold collation. In less than half an hour the parties returned to the ball-room, when the Grand Duke led off a Polonaise with Miss Seymour. Country dances again commenced; the White Cockade, Money Musk, Sir Roger de Coverley, and the Boulanger were called and led off by the Duke of Clarence. Dancing was continued till nearly five, but it was nearly an hour later before the company had entirely retired on Friday morning.

Some small differences do exist in the accounts of the dancing between the sources. Here's how The Courier described the event (18th January 1817):

Towards nine o'clock the company began to assemble for the ball, and in less than an hour almost every individual expected had arrived.

At ten o'clock, dancing commenced. Sir E Nagle officiated as Master of the Ceremonies. About forty couple stood for the first dance. The Duke of Clarence and Lady Charlotte Cholmondeley led off to the admired and lively tune of the Prince Regent. After the first national dance, waltzes and quadrilles were introduced for about one hour. Then the Duke of Clarence called the second dance of I'll gang nae mair to yon town, which he led off with Mrs Wigram. The Grand Duke Nicholas followed with Lady Charlotte Cholmondeley. The Fairy Dance was next called, and led off by the Duke of Clarence with Miss Seymour. On the conclusion of those country dances, waltzes succeeded. The Grand Duke and the Countess of Lieven joined among the waltzers, and they were much admired for their elegance and grace. Several quadrilles were again performed. The Royal Duke again danced, having called for The Tank.

It was near two o'clock before the company retired for refreshments, which were served in the adjoining rooms, and consisted of cold collation. In less than half an hour the parties returned to the ball-room, when the Grand Duke led off a Polonaise with Miss Seymour. Country dances again commenced; the White Cockade, Money Musk, Sir Roger de Coverley, and the Bellonge, were called and led off by the Duke of Clarence.

The Prince Regent was present in the ball-room nearly the whole evening. Several quadrilles were performed by some of the Officers of the 51st Regiment of Light Infantry that were much admired. The company included all the distinguished fashionables present at the last ball, with the addition of the French Ambassador, and the suite of the Grand Duke.

The Master of the Ceremonies for the evening was Sir Edmund Nagle (1757-1830), it would be his job to facilitate the dancing; he would go on to be appointed the Groom of the Bedchamber when the Prince Regent became King George IV in 1820. We're told that a group of army officers performed at least some of the quadrilles; presumably the officers had been drilled in the choreographies ahead of the ball, they would be dancing for the enjoyment of the guests with a (presumably) impeccably synchronised performance.

The Morning Post newspaper for the 18th January 1817 shared further details again. They listed many of the guests at the ball, and added:

The tout ensemble was indescribably splendid - the dresses of the ladies were brilliant; a more costly display of ornamental embellishments has been rarely witnessed.

British manufacture again triumphed; for, in the vestments worn, not a foreign loom, for a British subject, appeared to have been employed.

The Prince Regent wore a blue coat, white waistcoat, and dark breeches. The Star and Garter, with minor stars, were the leading embellishments. The Duke of York blue coat, star &c. The Duke of Clarence blue coat, and ditto. The Grand Duke, Russian regimentals, green, scarlet, and gold, with a diamond star of immense value and corresponding lustre.

Many of the nation's local newspapers carried reports of the Ball too, generally sourced from the London papers. We're told that most of the guests from the Birthday Ball the previous week returned for this grand ball, and that once again British manufactured clothing was to be worn.

After a long night of dancing the company must have been exhausted. The following day (Friday the 17th) was spent idling in Brighton; The Courier (18th January 1817) reported: his Royal Highness the Duke of York, in military uniform, the Imperial Grand Duke Nicholas, dressed in the costume of Colonel in the Emperor of Russia's Body Guards, accompanied by the Foreign Ambassadors, Sir B Bloomfield, and a retinue of Nobility and attendants, rode out to view the town, and afterwards proceeded to the Cavalry Barracks, and inspected the four troops of the 10th Hussars. The Grand Duke was highly pleased with the appearance of the men and their appointments. On the return of the cavalcade to the Pavilion, the Grand Duke dismounted, and in a short time, accompanied the Duke of Clarence in a promenade on the Steine. The Prince called a meeting of his Privy Council in Brighton on the afternoon of Saturday the 18th (The Courier, 20th January 1817) and Carême prepared another gigantic feast for that evening (the menu for which also survives); Nicholas and his retinue then departed Brighton to return to London on the morning of Sunday January the 19th. Many of the reports state that Nicholas had intended to depart Brighton on the 18th; perhaps the lure of Carême's banquet was sufficient to cause him to stay the additional day!

The Prince Regent

The ball was opened before eleven o'clock by the Duke of Clarence and Lady Charlotte Cholmondeley. About thirty couple, with suitable vivacity, followed. Tune, The Prince Regent. (Morning Chronicle)

The Duke of Clarence and Lady Charlotte Cholmondeley led off to the admired and lively tune of the Prince Regent. (Courier)

Towards ten o'clock the Ball was opened by the Duke of Clarence and Lady Charlotte Cholmondeley, who led off to the inspiring air called The Prince Regent, and about 35 couple followed. (Birthday ball)

The accounts of both balls state that this was the initial dance of the evening and that the same pair of dancers led off at both events. We're told that around 35 couples followed for the birthday ball and around 30 for the Grand Duke's ball; this would take quite a long time to dance through and would be tiring for the lead dancers. One of those dancers was the Duke of Clarence, he is better known to history as King William IV, he took the throne when his older brother died in 1830. All of the accounts confirm that it was a lively tune.

Several tunes were published under the name The Prince Regent, it's uncertain which was danced at our balls; we've written about the tune in a previous paper, you might like to follow the link to read more.

Figure 7. La Grande Polonaise from G.M.S. Chivers' 1822 Modern Dancing Master

Polonaise & Waltz

The next was a waltz; ... The fifth was a waltz, called and commenced by the Grand Duke. His Imperial Highness, as adopted in Russia, preceded the waltz by a Polonaise march and step, in which the dancers move round the space alloted for the exercise in graceful motion, ere the more intricate varieties of the waltz are pursued. ... the Grand Duke led off a Polonaise with Miss Seymour (Morning Chronicle)

The Grand Duke and the Countess of Lieven joined among the waltzers, and they were much admired for their elegance and grace. (Courier)

There was evidently a good deal of waltzing at the ball as indeed there had also been at the birthday ball the week before. Nicholas himself indulged in the waltzing, he danced with the Russian ambassador's wife, Countess Lieven, amongst others. We've written about the couple-waltz in previous papers, the dance had been growing in popularity in Britain since the start of the 19th century, but it was increasingly socially acceptable from perhaps mid 1814 (when Nicholas' brother Alexander famously waltzed in London).

The unusual detail for our ball was that Nicholas followed a Russian convention and preceded the waltz with a polonaise march and step. We've written about polonaise marching in a previous paper, it tended to involve a ceremonial parade of couples, perhaps leading through a palace. It's likely that for this event the marching remained within the ball room and that the couples were directed so as to form patterns on the dance floor.

The dancing master G.M.S. Chivers published a brief guide to La Grande Polonaise within his 1822 Modern Dancing Master. Chivers wrote that The Dance commences with a Tune in March Time, and terminates with a Sauteuse, and will require at least ten or twelve couple to perform it. Any number of persons can join in the Dance, observing that there is an even number of couples; and no person should join after the Dance has commenced. He then went on to list figures that he claimed were as was performed when the Allied Sovereigns were at Aix-la-Chappel (that is, in the peace negotiations of 1818). His figures (see Figure 7) involve a marching movement in which couples lead around the room, then lines of ladies and gentlemen separate to march separately around the room, and then remerge back together and end in a circle; this is followed by a sauteuse movement with a quadrille like phrase for pairs of couples in sequence, and the dance ends with general waltzing. It's likely that something similar to Chivers' La Grande Polonaise was experienced at our ball of 1817.

Cotillions & Quadrilles

... the third, a cotillion ... (Morning Chronicle)

waltzes and quadrilles were introduced for about one hour. ... Several quadrilles were performed by some of the Officers of the 51st Regiment of Light Infantry that were much admired. (Morning Chronicle)

The terms Cotillion and Quadrille were often used interchangeably at our early 1817 date; the Quadrille was a dance form that had grown in popularity in Britain throughout the 1810s, especially from 1816 onwards. We've previously investigated the dancing of Quadrilles at a Carlton House ball in mid 1816, that event may have helped to escalate the adoption of the dance. Numerous Quadrille choreographies were published by early 1817, there's no way to know which Quadrilles were danced at our ball though it's likely that the first set would have been danced. We've investigated how to dance the First Set of Quadrilles elsewhere. The quadrille performed by the officers of the 51st Regiment may have been a little more fancy than those danced by the others of the company, the figures would presumably have been selected to impress an audience.

Figure 8. Waltzing at the Pavilion c.1820. Image courtesy of the British Museum.

I'll Gang Nae Mair to Yon Town

Then the Duke of Clarence called the second dance of I'll gang nae mair to yon town, which he led off with Mrs Wigram. (Courier)

The second dance was called by the Royal Duke I'll gang nae mair to yon town who led off with the same accomplished partner. (Birthday ball)

The sequence of the tunes differs slightly across the reports, but this tune was acknowledged to be the favourite of the Prince Regent, it was often called at his balls so it's no surprise that it would be danced at our ball. It featured at both the Birthday ball and the Grand Duke's ball; it had also featured at the Carlton House Ball of 1811 and countless other balls since; it was arguably the most popular dancing tune of the entire Regency period. We've investigated the tune in another paper, you might like to follow the link to read more.

The dance was led off by the Duke of Clarence (later King William IV) and Mrs Selina Wigram (d.1866); Mrs Wigram was married to Robert Wigram (1773-1843), her father (d.1809) had been appointed physician-extraordinary to the Prince back in 1791, he was reported to have regularly attended the Prince for the Brighton season. Selina was presumably known to the royal household; her husband was knighted in 1818, he would inherit his own father's baronetcy in 1830.

The Fairy Dance

The Fairy Dance was next called, and led off by the Duke of Clarence with Miss Seymour. (Courier)

The Fairy Dance is another tune that we've studied previously, you can follow the link to read more. We're told that once again the dance was led off by the Duke of Clarence.

Waterloo

the fourth a country dance, called Waterloo, which was led off by the Grand Duke and Lady Charlotte Cholmondeley, followed by the Duke of Clarence and the elegant Mrs Wigram. (Morning Chronicle)

There were several tunes in circulation named Waterloo, we've investigated them before in a previous paper.

Figure 9. The Evening Party in the Yellow Room at the Pavilion Brighton, 1824. Image courtesy of Yale University.

The Tank

The Royal Duke again danced, having called for The Tank. (Courier)

Yet again The Tank is a tune we've studied in a previous paper, and once again the dance was led off by the Duke of Clarence. The tune was published in London from around 1809 and was probably composed by Lady Ashbrook.

The White Cockade

Country dances again commenced; the White Cockade ... (Morning Chronicle)

The White Cockade was an old tune that had returned to significance in 1814 as the symbol of the resurgent Bourbonist party in France, it was worn by people who chose to publicly distance themselves from the Napoleonist party. We've written about the tune in a previous paper, you might like to follow the link to read more.

Mony Musk

... Money Musk ... (Morning Chronicle)

This popular tune is one we've not written about before so shall explore in a little more detail here. The tune was composed by Daniel Dow (1732-1783) and was first issued in Edinburgh under the name Sr Archd Grant of Monemusk's Reel within Dow's c.1778 Thirty Seven new Reells & Strathspeys (see Figure 10). The precise date of Dow's publication is uncertain; there's little doubt that he was the genuine composer (though earlier tunes with a similar melody are known), the date of the composition and publication is variously given as between 1775 and 1780.

Figure 10. Sir Archd Grant of Monemusk's Reel from Daniel Dow's c.1778 Thirty Seven new Reells & Strathspeys (above), and Mony Musk from Francis Werner's Book XVIII for the Year 1785. Lower image © THE BRITISH LIBRARY BOARD, b.49.a.(3.) ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Aside: Dating Dow's collection is challenging. The date is of some interest as his book is thought to thought to have been the first to feature the word Strathspey in its title. Dow's earlier work, Twenty Minuets and Sixteen Reels or Country Dances, is known to have been published in 1773 (e.g. as referenced in the Caledonian Mercury, 27th February 1773). The later work can date no earlier than that.

Many of the tunes within Dow's collection are named for identifiable people. For example, Lady Charlot Murray's Reel was surely named for Lady Charlotte Murray (1754-1808); Lady Frances Scots Reel was named for Lady Frances Scott (1750-1817), Frances married in 1783, so the collection can't be any later than that date as the tune would have been renamed. Another tune was named The Countess of Sutherland's Reel, this must have been a reference to Elizabeth Sutherland (1765-1839) who inherited the title as an infant. A further tune is named Mrs Graham of Balgowans Reel which was named for Mary Cathcart (1757-1792) who married Thomas Graham in 1774. These insights gives us a probable dating range for publication somewhere between 1774 and 1783.

It might be noted that the dedicatees we've identified were young ladies, either in their teens or early twenties, depending on the date of publication. Each of them was a young lady of fashion and a member of the Scottish peerage. This becomes relevant when two further titles are considered: The Dutchess of Hamilton's Reel and Dutchess of Atholl's Reel. In each case there was a Dowager Duchess living to whom the tune may have been dedicated, but also a young lady who had only recently married into the title. Given that several tunes were clearly named for youthful fashionables, it seems likely that the younger Duchesses would be referred to; this identifies them as Jane Murray (1754-1790, the sister of Mrs Graham above) who married the 4th Duke of Atholl in 1774, and Elizabeth Hamilton (1757-1837) who married the 8th Duke of Hamilton in 1778. This in turn suggests that the collection was not published prior to the date of the Hamilton wedding in April 1778.

Tunes could of course be written and dedicated before they were published, the dating of the collection remains conjecture, but it seems likely that Dow's collection was first published c.1778 when the dedicatees we've identified were aged between 18 and 28.

Our tune was first dedicated to Sir Archibald Grant of Monymusk, Aberdeen; identifying Grant is complicated as several generations of Grants shared the same name. He could have been Sir Archibald Grant (1696-1778, 2nd Baronet), or Sir Archibald Grant (1731-1796, 3rd Baronet), or even Sir Archibald Grant (1760-1820, 4th Baronet). Given Dow's preference for youthful fashionables, the youngest Grant seems to have been the most likely dedicatee, he would have been 18 at our estimated publication date of 1778 and would just have received the right to the title Sir (the oldest son of a baronet was, at this date, automatically a knight).

The next known publication of the tune was in London where it was included within Francis Werner's Book XVIII for the Year 1785 under the simplified title of Mony Musk (see Figure 10). It was included in Longman & Broderip's c.1791 1st Book under the name Money Musk. It was also published in London within the Preston collection of 24 Country Dances for 1786 and in the Campbell collection of 24 Country Dances for 1791. After receiving attention in London the tune was republished several times more in Scotland; examples include John Anderson's c.1789 A Selection of the most Approved Highland Strathspeys, Country Dances, English & French Dances and in Joshua Campbell's c.1789 A Collection of New Reels & Highland Strathspeys. It was printed in Glasgow within McFadyen's c.1794 A Selection of Scotch, English, Irish and Foreign Airs, Vol IV; then in Edinburgh in Petrie's c.1796 A Second Collection of Strathspey Reels, &c. and in Gow's 1799 Part First of the Complete Repository of Original Scots Slow Strathspeys and Dances. Back in London it would be printed in Walker's c.1804 5th Number, in Napier's c.1806 Selection of Dances & Strathspeys, in Andrew's c.1808 14th Number and in James Platts's c.1811 25th Number. It would also be referenced in Thomas Wilson's 1809 Treasures of Terpsichore, and in undated premium dance collections probably from the 1790s issued by Preston and Bland & Weller. The tune was widely known though the title varied across the publications; most of the London publishers issued it with the word Money in the title, whereas most of the Scottish publications avoided that mistake and instead favoured Monymusk, Moniemusk, Monny Musk or similar.

The tune was widely published but it seems not to have been widely danced at society balls; it may of course have been very popular, the name of the tune was certainly known, but it tends not to appear in the few programmes that survive. It was named as being danced at an 1809 ball hosted by the Princess of Wales at Kensington Palace (Morning Post, 29th May 1809), and then at our ball of 1817 in Brighton. It seems to have retained relevance over more than 30 years from first publication in London through to at least our Ball of 1817.

We've animated a suggested arrangement of Francis Werner's version from 1785 (see Figure 10) and of one of Thomas Wilson's arrangements from 1809. One curiosity of the various Mony Musk publications is that the minority which include dancing figures tend to feature the same arrangement, the Wilson and Werner figures will (for example) be found to be very similar, despite Wilson's having modernised them according to his own system.

For futher references to the tune, see also: Money Musk (1) at The Traditional Tune Archive

Sir Roger de Coverley

... Sir Roger de Coverley ... (Morning Chronicle)

Dancing was kept up with great spirit till five o'clock, when the Ball terminated in the true old English style, with the deservedly popular dance of Sir Roger de Coverley, led off by the Duke of Clarence and Miss L Caton. (Birthday ball)

Sir Roger de Coverley was a popular choreographed off-formula country dance in which everybody interacts with everyone else; and as with the Polonaise dance above, the musicians were required to pay attention to the dancing in order to play sufficient repetitions of the tune. Country Dances at this date were almost universally arranged as triple minors; a minor set of three couples would dance together and at some point the leading couple would progress one place ready for the next iteration of the music and dance. Sir Roger de Coverly is a rare example of a country dance with a completely different formula; there are no minor sets involved and the leading couple progresses to the very bottom after each iteration. It's so different to the typical Country Dance that it's debatable whether it should even be referred to as a Country Dance at all, it subverts expectations.

Figure 11. Roger of Coverly from Playford's 1695 The Dancing Master, 9th Edition (top); from Thompson's c.1764 Compleat Collection of 200 Favourite Country Dances, Vol 2 (left); from Johnson's c.1740 A Choice Collection of 200 Favourite Country Dances (right).

The origins of the dance are unclear; the tune and title may perhaps be ancient (I have no opinion regarding that debate) but they first appear arranged in a country dance arrangement in the 1695 9th edition of Playford's The Dancing Master under the name Roger of Coverly (see Figure 11, top). The tune, when first published, was arranged in 8 bars of 9/4 rhythm music; the associated dancing figures were those of a fairly standard country dance. There was nothing, at this date, to hint at the success the tune would go on to enjoy in the 19th century.

A new daily publication named The Spectator was launched in 1711, it would have a significant effect. The Spectator wasn't a newspaper as such though it did seek to educate its London readership with philosophical and humorous stories. The eponymous but unnamed Spectator character and his chums (one of whom was named Sir Roger de Coverly) would go on to feature in some 555 daily editions between 1711 and 1712. The Sir Roger character was evidently named after the tune published by Playford with the addition of a fictional knighthood. Roger was introduced in the second edition on the 2nd March 1711, the story began: The first of our Society is a Gentleman of Worcestershire, of ancient Descent, a Baronet, his Name Sir Roger De Coverly. His great-Grandfather was Inventor of that famous Country-Dance which is call'd after him. We're led to understand that the dance was not only well know, but specifically famous at this early date. We do not however know whether the exotic figures that would go on to be associated with the tune were extant at this early date. As a bit of an aside, it's curious to note the implication that dances could be acknowledged to be invented, that is, they can be the product of an individual genius and go on to be universally known. This origin story for the tune and dance is of course fictional, but it added a hint of accessible mystique; readers might already know the tune, if not they would have reason to remember the tune when next they encountered it.

The Spectator was sufficiently popular for the main characters to take on a life of their own, the name Sir Roger de Coverly would turn up in print throughout the 18th century as a result; the collected editions of The Spectator were regularly reprinted and widely enjoyed across the 18th century and into the 19th.

Our tune appeared in print several times across the 18th century, one example can be found in the first volume of Johnson's c.1740 A Choice Collection of 200 Favourite Country Dances (see Figure 11, right); the Johnson version was identical with that of Playford, both the tune and dancing figures remained the same. A further example can be found in Walsh's c.1718 Compleat Country Dancing Master. A more interesting version can be found published in Charles and Samuel Thompson's c.1764 second volume of their Compleat Collection of 200 Favourite Country Dances (see Figure 11, left); the Thompson edition reprinted the Playford music but it also featured the initial variant of the now iconic dancing figures. It's unclear whether these figures predated the Thompson publication or whether the Thompsons (and their choreographer) introduced the figure themselves; they clearly decided to print a different figure than had previously been in circulation. The Thompsons were aware that the music had been published several times before, but many of their customers might have thought it a new tune named for the infamous character in The Spectator.

The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw a large increase in the number of music publishers operating in London, several of them reprinted Sir Roger in the early 19th century. The dance was in the process of becoming newly popular as a mixer for use at the end of an evening of dancing. Thomas Wilson in his 1820 Complete System of English Country Dancing wrote of Sir Roger de Coverley that This Dance was composed expressly for a finishing Country Dance, about 100 years ago, and derived its name from Addison's Sir Roger De Coverley, so frequently mentioned by him in his popular Essays in the Spectator ... The Figures of which it is composed being permanent and unalterable, and thereby differing in its construction from all other Country Dances. It is capable of being performed by a whole set, however numerous ... It is necessary, that the persons who are to perform this Dance should place themselves very widely apart, and exactly opposite to each other ... At all Balls properly regulated, this Dance should be the finishing one, as it is calculated from the sociality of its construction, to promote the good humour of the company, and causing them to separate in evincing a pleasing satisfaction with each other.

The first of the new generation of 19th century publishers to print the dance was probably William Campbell in his c.1803 18th Book (see Figure 12, top). Campbell normalised the music into a 9/8 time signature (rather than Playford's 9/4 arrangement) and added a third strain of music and a bass line. Campbell's dancing figures were somewhat similar to those of the Thompson publication, though not exactly the same; Campbell's arrangement offers an intermediate version between the Thompson version and the subsequent arrangements that would become better known.

Figure 12. Sir Roger de Coverley from William Campbell's c.1803 c.1803 18th Book (top), and from James Platts's c.1811 25th Number (bottom). Lower image © THE BRITISH LIBRARY BOARD, h.726.m.(10.) ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Approximately concurrent with the Campbell publication was another issued by Joseph Dale in his c.1804 3rd Number. I suspect that Campbell published before Dale but the precise sequence is uncertain and unimportant. Dale's version is of interest as it's essentially a reprint of the c.1764 Thompson arrangement; Dale modernised some of the wording (he used Gent instead of Man and Lady in place of Wo) and added a bass score, but he retained the 9/4 time signature for the 2 strains of music just as the tune had appeared in Playford's publication over 100 years earlier.

Thomas Wilson in his 1808 Analysis of Country Dancing then offered a new figure for the dance that merged elements of both the Thompson/Dale and Campbell versions, together with new innovations perhaps of his own invention. Wilson also offered some simple country dancing figures for use with the tune in his 1809 Treasures of Terpsichore, in so doing he identified the tune has having three parts thereby indicating his preference for the Campbell music. He went on to publish the figures with an accompanying score in his 1816 Companion to the Ball Room, his music was a minor variation on that printed by Campbell.

Yet another variant of the dance was published by James Platts in his c.1811 25th Number (see Figure 12, bottom); Platts published the Campbell music (in 3 parts and arranged with a 9/8 time signature), with a variation on Wilson's dancing figures.

The general structure of the dance across these various publishers is in either two or three parts (depending on whether there are two or three phrases to the music). The three sections are approximately as follows:

1. The diagonally opposite corners at each end of the longways set interact with each other a number of times. The Thompson/Dale figure has the opposite corners alternately meeting in the middle then footing (i.e. setting) to each other and then retiring back to places; then swinging in the middle; then turning in the middle. The Wilson figure adds an allemande to this sequence (the meaning of which is open to interpretation); the Platts figure adds a pousette round each other that doesn't make much sense and was perhaps intended to be an allemande. Wilson's 1816 arrangement replaces the footing with Courtesy and Bow to each other. The Campbell figure is quite different however, it has the entire company circling once around and back again (as might be expected of a Cotillion dance or La Boulanger).
   
   
2. Then the top couple crosses and casts to the very bottom of the set. The Thompson/Dale arrangements describe this as cross over and turn till you come to the bottom; Campbell has it as Cross over all the Cu to the Bottom; Wilson uses similar text to Campbell, the implication of turning having been removed. Wilson's 1816 variant added a footnote: Should the set be very long, they may cross over every other Couple, missing a Couple every time; in crossing the Lady passes in front of the Gentleman, that is, always passing the Gentleman on her Right Hand. Platts offered a sightly different figure to that of Wilson, he wrote The top Gent turn his Partner half round with the right hand & cast off 1 Cu; turn again with the left hand and cast off another Cu and so continue to the bottom of the sett; the Platts half turn may have significance when we consider the music in just a moment. If the leading couple arrive at the bottom of the set on the wrong side then they may have to cross one last time in order to correct themselves.
   
   
3. If there's a third section to the music then the leading couple either lead or promenade back to the top of the set and then cast down to the very bottom. This can be a simple figure, the Campbell arrangement has lead up the middle to the top & cast off; or it can be a more complicated figure, Wilson has the leading couple promenading up the middle then casting off with all the other couples following them, beginning from the bottom, by which means they all regain their situations, except the couple which began the dance, who will now be at the bottom of the room. Platts has a similar figure to Wilson: The 1st Cu having arrived at the bottom lead up the middle the other Couples following in rotation; being at the top the Ladies cast off on their own sides and the Gentlemen on theirs. The iteration ends with the original leading couple at the bottom, and everyone else will have progressed up one place.

The dance then iterates with a new leading couple (the original second couple), and continues to repeat until the original leading couple return back to the top.

The Platts publication adds an interesting detail regarding the music: The 1st part of the tune must repeat till the 1st Cu are ready to cross over and the 2d part till they are arrived at the bottom; the last part to the remainder of the Figure. Platts explicitly required the musicians to pay attention to the dancers and to add as many repetitions of the music as are required given the size of the assembly and the complexity of the arrangement. This makes things rather awkward for those of us who dance to pre-recorded music or with more than one longways set! Platts presumably intended the half turns in the second section to be timed elegantly with the music, rather than the mad dash to the bottom of the set which might be implied by Wilson.

It's unclear which variant of the dance would have been enjoyed at our ball in 1817, what is clear is that several different variants were known and enjoyed. Further variants would go on to be published later in the 19th century; for example, Chappell published figures in 1838 whereby the second section was replaced with a chain figure, and the third with the leading couple making a static arch for the rest of the company to cast down and through. Many later arrangements feature a strip the willow figure in place of the second section... Wilson was mistaken in describing the figures as permanent and unalterable!

For futher references to the tune, see also: Sir Roger de Coverley at The Traditional Tune Archive

La Boulanger

... and the Boulanger were called and led off by the Duke of Clarence. (Morning Chronicle)

The final dance named as having been used at our ball was La Boulanger, it was another choreographed mixer dance that was similar in nature to Sir Roger de Coverley. The couples would form up in a circle (rather than a longways set) and everyone would dance with everyone else; the musicians had to pay attention to the dancers and repeat the strains as many times as necessary for the movements to complete. The dancing figures associated with La Boulanger were more consistent across publishers than those of Sir Roger though at least two different tunes were published for use with the dance. We've studied La Boulanger in a previous paper, you might like to follow the link to read more.

Conclusion

Our 1817 ball was conducted in a less formal style than the typical London balls we've studied of the preceding two decades. Brighton Pavilion was the Prince's stately pleasure-dome (a phrase borrowed from Coleridge's 1816 Kubla Khan, a poem that may have been influenced by the Pavilion itself), it was somewhere he could live and entertain away from the immediate oversight of his family in London.

We've studied several historical balls in our recent papers, this one has been the most modern. It's modern in the literal sense (the balls we've studied to-date were held between 1799 and 1816) but also in the sense that it's the most likely to have been recognised by modern regency-dance enthusiasts. Many of the conventions will be familiar to modern ball-going reenactors and enthusiasts:- a variety of different dance styles, some choreographed dances, several mixer dances, use of both modern and ancient (yet fashionable) tunes, newly arrived dance styles that might never have been experienced before, and so forth. The most significant characteristic may have been the prevalence of mixer dances, dances in which everyone interacts with each other; such dances minimised the stuffy precedence rules that might be experienced at court balls, the dancers were inherently each-other's peers; the power-politics of typical country-dances involved couples having to wait for the leading couple to draw them into the dance, the mixer dances towards the end of the evening minimised that formality. Several of the dances may have required the musicians to pay attention to the dancing and to adapt the music in-situ; this is a technique largely lost in the modern era of recorded music, it seems to have been fundamental to how dancing worked back in 1817. A dance like the Waltz required the leader of the orchestra to change the tempo of the music as it was being danced, skill was required to gauge the temperament of the room and to gradually nudge the dancers appropriately.

It's unclear whether the Prince's balls at Brighton had always enjoyed this less-formal arrangement. The style may (or may not) have been new but it was certainly becoming popular; entertainments of a similar nature were increasingly being held around the nation. The old Country Dances were going out of style; free-form Waltzes and choreographed Quadrilles were taking over the ball rooms of the aristocracy, dances in which the performers received an approximately equal share of the entertainment. The dancing masters in London were actively inventing new styles of dancing, some would be adopted by provincial dancing masters around the country. The immediate future of ballroom entertainment would focus on the Waltz and Quadrille balls of the late 1810s and 1820s... this event in Brighton may have been significant in paving the way for that new convention to arise.

It's unclear the extent to which Grand Duke Nicholas's visit to Britain influenced his future policy; he left England in March 1817 and travelled home to Russia and his own royal wedding. He became Tsar Nicholas I in 1825 and he ruled in Russia until 1855; perhaps he retained fond memories of his British tour and the time he spent at Brighton as an honoured guest of the Prince Regent.

We'll leave this investigation there, if you have any further information to share do please Contact Us, we'd love to know more.